Трифонов Е.В.
Антропология:   дух - душа - тело - среда человека,

или  Пневмапсихосоматология человека

Русско-англо-русская энциклопедия, 18-е изд., 2015

π

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Общий предметный алфавитный указатель

Психология Соматология Математика Физика Химия Наука            Общая   лексика
А Б В Г Д Е Ж З И К Л М Н О П Р С Т У Ф Х Ц Ч Ш Щ Э Ю Я
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z


ЗРИТЕЛЬНАЯ СИСТЕМА
visual system ]

     Зрительная система - это сенсорная система, назначение которой состоит в получении зрительной информации о среде и передаче ее в сенсорные области головного мозга.
     Сложная оптическая система глаза осуществляет проекцию зрительного образа на рецепторы сетчатки глаза. Сетчатка образована густой сетью рецепторов и связанных с ними нейронов, специализированных на восприятии различных характеристик зрительного раздражения, таких как интенсивность, цвет, размер, кривизна и скорость перемещения. В зрительном восприятии важную роль играют движения глаз и головы. Информация, воспринимаемая рецепторами, передается по зрительному нерву к зрительным структурам мозга. Здесь происходит ее переработка с целью последующего использования в организации поведения.


Схема. Кости глазницы = Bones of the orbit.
Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian  
Модификация: Gray H., (1821–1865), Drake R., Vogl W., Mitchell A., Eds. Gray's Anatomy for Students. Churchill Livingstone, 2007, 1150 p.
см.: Анатомия человека: Литература. Иллюстрации.

Примечание:

Seven bones contribute to the framework of each orbit. They are the maxilla, zygomatic, frontal, ethmoid, lacrimal, sphenoid, and palatine bones. Together they give the bony orbit the shape of a pyramid, with its wide base opening anteriorly onto the face, and its apex extending in a posteromedial direction. Completing the pyramid configuration are medial, lateral, superior, and inferior walls.


The apex of the pyramidal-shaped bony orbit is the optic foramen, while the base (the orbital rim) is formed:
    superiorly by the frontal bone;
    medially by the frontal process of the maxilla;
    inferiorly by the zygomatic process of the maxilla and the zygomatic bone;
    laterally by the zygomatic bone, the frontal process of the zygomatic bone, and the zygomatic process of the frontal bone.



Схема. Веки = Eyelids.
Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian  
Модификация: Gray H., (1821–1865), Drake R., Vogl W., Mitchell A., Eds. Gray's Anatomy for Students. Churchill Livingstone, 2007, 1150 p.
см.: Анатомия человека: Литература. Иллюстрации.

Примечание:
The upper and lower eyelids are anterior structures that, when closed, protect the surface of the eyeball.
The space between the eyelids, when they are open, is the palpebral fissure.
The layers of the eyelids, from anterior to posterior, consist of skin, subcutaneous tissue, voluntary muscle, the orbital septum, the tarsus, and conjunctiva.
The upper and lower eyelids are basically similar in structure except for the addition of two muscles in the upper eyelid.


Схема. Круговая мышца глаза = Orbicularis oculi muscle.
Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian  
Модификация: Gray H., (1821–1865), Drake R., Vogl W., Mitchell A., Eds. Gray's Anatomy for Students. Churchill Livingstone, 2007, 1150 p.
см.: Анатомия человека: Литература. Иллюстрации.

Примечание:
The muscle fibers encountered next in an anteroposterior direction through the eyelid belong to the palpebral part of orbicularis oculi. This muscle is part of the larger orbicularis oculi muscle, which consists primarily of two parts-an orbital part, which surrounds the orbit, and the palpebral part, which is in the eyelids.


Orbicularis oculi is innervated by the facial nerve [VII] and closes the eyelids.
The palpebral part is thin and anchored medially by the medial palpebral ligament, which attaches to the anterior lacrimal crest, and laterally blends with fibers from the muscle in the lower eyelid at the lateral palpebral ligament.
A third part of the orbicularis oculi muscle that can be identified consists of fibers on the medial border, which pass deeply to attach to the posterior lacrimal crest. These fibers form the lacrimal part of the orbicularis oculi, which may be involved in the drainage of tears.



Схема. Глазничная перегородка = Orbital septum.
Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian  
Модификация: Gray H., (1821–1865), Drake R., Vogl W., Mitchell A., Eds. Gray's Anatomy for Students. Churchill Livingstone, 2007, 1150 p.
см.: Анатомия человека: Литература. Иллюстрации.

Примечание:
Deep to the palpebral part of the orbicularis oculi is an extension of periosteum into both the upper and lower eyelids from the margin of the orbit. This is the orbital septum, which extends downward into the upper eyelid and upward into the lower eyelid and is continuous with the periosteum outside and inside the orbit. The orbital septum attaches to the tendon of levator palpebrae superioris muscle in the upper eyelid and attaches to the tarsus in the lower eyelid.


Схема. Верхний и нижний хрящи века = Tarsal plates.
Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian  
Модификация: Gray H., (1821–1865), Drake R., Vogl W., Mitchell A., Eds. Gray's Anatomy for Students. Churchill Livingstone, 2007, 1150 p.
см.: Анатомия человека: Литература. Иллюстрации.

Примечание:
Providing major support for each eyelid is the tarsus. There is a large superior tarsus in the upper eyelid and a smaller inferior tarsus in the lower eyelid. These plates of dense connective tissue are attached medially to the anterior lacrimal crest of the maxilla by the medial palpebral ligament and laterally to the orbital tubercle on the zygomatic bone by the lateral palpebral ligament.


Embedded in the tarsal plates are tarsal glands, which empty onto the free margin of each eyelid. These glands are modified sebaceous glands and secrete an oily substance that increases the viscosity of the tears and decreases the rate of evaporation of tears from the surface of the eyeball.
Although the tarsal plates in the upper and lower eyelids are generally similar in structure and function, there is one unique difference. Associated with the tarsus in the upper eyelid is the levator palpebrae superioris muscle, which raises the eyelid. Its origin is from the posterior part of the roof of the orbit, just superior to the optic foramen, and it inserts into the anterior surface of the superior tarsus, with the possibility of a few fibers attaching to the skin of the upper eyelid. It is innervated by the oculomotor nerve [III].
In companion with the levator palpebrae superioris muscle is a collection of smooth muscle fibers passing from the inferior surface of the levator to the upper edge of the superior tarsus. Innervated by postganglionic sympathetic fibers from the superior cervical ganglion, this muscle is the superior tarsal muscle.
Loss of function of either the levator palpebrae superioris muscle or the superior tarsal muscle results in a ptosis or drooping of the upper eyelid.



Схема. Кровеносные сосуды век = Vasculature of the eyelids.
Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian  
Модификация: Gray H., (1821–1865), Drake R., Vogl W., Mitchell A., Eds. Gray's Anatomy for Students. Churchill Livingstone, 2007, 1150 p.
см.: Анатомия человека: Литература. Иллюстрации.

Примечание:
The arterial supply to the eyelids is from the numerous vessels in the area. They include:
    the supratrochlear, supra-orbital, lacrimal, and dorsal nasal arteries from the ophthalmic artery;
    the angular artery from the facial artery;
    the transverse facial artery from the superficial temporal artery;
    branches from the superficial temporal artery itself.



Venous drainage follows an external pattern through veins associated with the various arteries and an internal pattern moving into the orbit through connections with the ophthalmic veins.
Lymphatic drainage is primarily to the parotid nodes, with some drainage from the medial corner of the eye along lymphatic vessels associated with the angular and facial arteries to the submandibular nodes.



Схема. Иннервация век = Innervation of the eyelids.
Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian  
Модификация: Gray H., (1821–1865), Drake R., Vogl W., Mitchell A., Eds. Gray's Anatomy for Students. Churchill Livingstone, 2007, 1150 p.
см.: Анатомия человека: Литература. Иллюстрации.

Примечание:
Innervation of the eyelids includes both sensory and motor components.
The sensory nerves are all branches of the trigeminal nerve [V]. Palpebral branches arise from:
    the supra-orbital, supratrochlear, infratrochlear, and lacrimal branches of the ophthalmic nerve [V1];
    the infra-orbital branch of the maxillary nerve [V2].


Loss of innervation of the superior tarsal muscle by sympathetic fibers causes a constant partial ptosis.



Motor innervation is from:
    the facial nerve [VII], which innervates the palpebral part of the orbicularis oculi;
    the oculomotor nerve [III], which innervates the levator palpebrae superioris;
    sympathetic fibers, which innervate the superior tarsal muscle.
Loss of innervation of the orbicularis oculi by the facial nerve [VII] causes an inability to close the eyelids tightly and the lower eyelid droops away, resulting in a spillage of tears.
Loss of innervation of the levator palpebrae superioris by the oculomotor nerve causes an inability to open the superior eyelid voluntarily, producing a complete ptosis.



Схема. Слёзная железа и мышца, поднимающая верхнее веко = Lacrimal gland and levator palpebrae superioris.
Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian
Модификация: Gray H., (1821–1865), Drake R., Vogl W., Mitchell A., Eds. Gray's Anatomy for Students. Churchill Livingstone, 2007, 1150 p.
см.: Анатомия человека: Литература. Иллюстрации

Примечание:

The lacrimal apparatus is involved in the production, movement, and drainage of fluid from the surface of the eyeball. It is made up of the lacrimal gland and its ducts, the lacrimal canaliculi, the lacrimal sac, and the nasolacrimal duct.
The lacrimal gland is anterior in the superolateral region of the orbit, and is is divided into two parts by the levator palpebrae superioris;
  the larger orbital part is in a depression, the lacrimal fossa, in the frontal bone;
  the smaller palpebral part is inferior to levator palpebrae superioris in the superolateral part of the eyelid.
Numerous ducts empty the glandular secretions into the lateral part of the superior fornix of the conjunctiva.
Fluid is continually being secreted by the lacrimal gland and moved across the surface of the eyeball as the eyelids blink.
Innervation
The innervation of the lacrimal gland involves three different components.
Sensory innervation
Sensory neurons from the lacrimal gland return to the CNS through the lacrimal branch of the ophthalmic nerve [V1].
Secretomotor (parasympathetic) innervation
Secretomotor fibers from the parasympathetic part of the autonomic division of the PNS stimulate fluid secretion from the lacrimal gland. These preganglionic parasympathetic neurons leave the CNS in the facial nerve [VII], enter the greater petrosal nerve (a branch of the facial nerve [VII]), and continue with this nerve until it becomes the nerve of the pterygoid canal).
The nerve of the pterygoid canal eventually enters the pterygopalatine ganglion where the preganglionic parasympathetic neurons synapse on postganglionic parasympathetic neurons. The postganglionic neurons join the maxillary nerve [V2] and continue with it until the zygomatic nerve branches from it, and travel with the zygomatic nerve until it gives off the zygomaticotemporal nerve, which eventually distributes postganglionic parasympathetic fibers in a small branch that joins the lacrimal nerve. The lacrimal nerve passes to the lacrimal gland.
Sympathetic innervation
Sympathetic innervation of the lacrimal gland follows a similar path as parasympathetic innervation. Postganglionic sympathetic fibers originating in the superior cervical ganglion travel along the plexus surrounding the internal carotid artery. They leave this plexus as the deep petrosal nerve and join the parasympathetic fibers in the nerve of the pterygoid canal. Passing through the pterygopalatine ganglion, the sympathetic fibers from this point onward follow the same path as the parasympathetic fibers to the lacrimal gland. Vessels
The arterial supply to the lacrimal gland is by branches from the ophthalmic artery and venous drainage is through the ophthalmic veins.

Схема. Положение слёзного мешка = Position of lacrimal sac.
Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian
Модификация: Gray H., (1821–1865), Drake R., Vogl W., Mitchell A., Eds. Gray's Anatomy for Students. Churchill Livingstone, 2007, 1150 p.
см.: Анатомия человека: Литература. Иллюстрации

Схема. Иннервация слёзной железы = Innervation of the lacrimal gland.
Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian
Модификация: Gray H., (1821–1865), Drake R., Vogl W., Mitchell A., Eds. Gray's Anatomy for Students. Churchill Livingstone, 2007, 1150 p.
см.: Анатомия человека: Литература. Иллюстрации

Схема. Отверстия в костях глазницы. Зрительный канал и верхняя глазничная щель = Openings into the bony orbit. Optic canal and superior orbital fissure.
Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian
Модификация: Gray H., (1821–1865), Drake R., Vogl W., Mitchell A., Eds. Gray's Anatomy for Students. Churchill Livingstone, 2007, 1150 p.
см.: Анатомия человека: Литература. Иллюстрации

Схема. Надкостница глазницы. A. Вид сбоку. B. Общее сухожильное кольцо = Periorbita. A. Lateral view. B. Common tendinous ring.
Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian
Модификация: Gray H., (1821–1865), Drake R., Vogl W., Mitchell A., Eds. Gray's Anatomy for Students. Churchill Livingstone, 2007, 1150 p.
см.: Анатомия человека: Литература. Иллюстрации


Схема. Фасциальное влагалище глазного яблока (тенонова капсула) = Fascial sheath of the eyeball.
Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian  
Модификация: Gray H., (1821–1865), Drake R., Vogl W., Mitchell A., Eds. Gray's Anatomy for Students. Churchill Livingstone, 2007, 1150 p.
см.: Анатомия человека: Литература. Иллюстрации.

Примечание:
The fascial sheath of the eyeball (bulbar sheath) is a layer of fascia that encloses a major part of the eyeball:
    posteriorly, it is firmly attached to the sclera (the white part of the eyeball) around the point of entrance of the optic nerve into the eyeball;
    anteriorly, it is firmly attached to the sclera near the edge of the cornea (the clear part of the eyeball);



    additionally, as the muscles approach the eyeball, the investing fascia surrounding each muscle blends with the fascial sheath of the eyeball as the muscles pass through and continue to their point of attachment.
A specialized lower part of the fascial sheath of the eyeball is the suspensory ligament, which supports the eyeball. This 'sling-like' structure is made up of the fascial sheath of the eyeball and contributions from the two inferior ocular muscles and the medial and lateral ocular muscles.


Схема. Связки глазного яблока. A. Вид спереди. B. Вид сверху = Check ligaments. A. Anterior view. B. Superior view.
Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian
Модификация: Gray H., (1821–1865), Drake R., Vogl W., Mitchell A., Eds. Gray's Anatomy for Students. Churchill Livingstone, 2007, 1150 p.
см.: Анатомия человека: Литература. Иллюстрации

Примечание:

One other fascial specialization in the orbit are the check ligaments. These are expansions of the investing fascia covering the medial and lateral rectus muscles, which attach to the medial and lateral walls of the bony orbit:
  the medial check ligament is an extension from the fascia covering the medial rectus muscle and attaches immediately posterior to the posterior lacrimal crest of the lacrimal bone;
  the lateral check ligament is an extension from the fascia covering the lateral rectus muscle and is attached to the orbital tubercle of the zygomatic bone.

Схема. A. Движения глазного яблока. B. Оси глазного яблока и глазницы = A. Movements of the eyeball. B. Axes of of the eyeball and orbit.
Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian
Модификация: Gray H., (1821–1865), Drake R., Vogl W., Mitchell A., Eds. Gray's Anatomy for Students. Churchill Livingstone, 2007, 1150 p.
см.: Анатомия человека: Литература. Иллюстрации

Примечание:

Of the seven muscles in the extrinsic group of muscles, one raises the eyelids, while the other six move the eyeball itself.
The movements of the eyeball, in three dimensions, are:
  elevation-moving the pupil superiorly;
  depression-moving the pupil inferiorly;
  abduction-moving the pupil laterally;
  adduction-moving the pupil medially;
  internal rotation-rotating the upper part of the pupil medially (or towards the nose);
  external rotation-rotating the upper part of the pupil laterally (or towards the temple).
Additionally, the axis of each orbit is directed slightly laterally from back to front, while each eyeball is directed anteriorly. Therefore, the pull of some muscles has multiple effects on the movement of the eyeball, while that of others has single effects.

Схема. Мышцы глазного яблока. A. Вид сверху. Вид сбоку = Muscles of the eyeball. A. Superior view. B. Lateral view.
Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian
Модификация: Gray H., (1821–1865), Drake R., Vogl W., Mitchell A., Eds. Gray's Anatomy for Students. Churchill Livingstone, 2007, 1150 p.
см.: Анатомия человека: Литература. Иллюстрации

Примечание:

There are two groups of muscles within the orbit:
  extrinsic muscles of eyeball (extra-ocular muscles) involved in movements of the eyeball or raising upper eyelids;
  intrinsic muscles within the eyeball, which control the shape of the lens and size of the pupil.
The extrinsic muscles include the levator palpebrae superioris, superior rectus, inferior rectus, medial rectus, lateral rectus, superior oblique, and inferior oblique.
The intrinsic muscles include the ciliary muscle, the sphincter pupillae, and the dilator pupillae.

Of the seven muscles in the extrinsic group of muscles, one raises the eyelids, while the other six move the eyeball itself.
The movements of the eyeball, in three dimensions, are:
  elevation-moving the pupil superiorly;
  depression-moving the pupil inferiorly;
  abduction-moving the pupil laterally;
  adduction-moving the pupil medially;
  internal rotation-rotating the upper part of the pupil medially (or towards the nose);
  external rotation-rotating the upper part of the pupil laterally (or towards the temple).
Additionally, the axis of each orbit is directed slightly laterally from back to front, while each eyeball is directed anteriorly. Therefore, the pull of some muscles has multiple effects on the movement of the eyeball, while that of others has single effects.

Таблица.  Внешние мышцы глазного яблока = Extrinsic (extra-ocular) muscles. Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian c. 613.
Модификация: Riordan J. Breastfeeding and Human Lactation, 3rd ed., Dorling Kindersley, 2004, 846 p., см.: Физиология человека: Литература. Иллюстрации., см.: Система репродукции. Литература.

Muscle

Origin

Insertion

Innervation

Function

1

Мышца, поднимающая верхнее веко = Levator palpebrae superioris

Lesser wing of sphenoid anterior to optic canal

Anterior surface of tarsal plate; a few fibers to skin and superior conjunctival fornix

Oculomotor nerve [III]- superior branch

Elevation of upper eyelid

2

Верхняя прямая мышцаSuperior rectus

Superior part of common tendinous ringAnterior half of eyeball superiorly

Anterior half of eyeball superiorly

Oculomotor nerve [III]- superior branch

Elevation, adduction, medial rotation of eyeball

3

Нижняя прямая мышца = Inferior rectus

Inferior part of common tendinous ring

Anterior half of eyeball inferiorly

Oculomotor nerve [III]- inferior branch

Depression, adduction, lateral rotation of eyeball

4

Медиальная прямая мышца = Medial rectus

Медиальная часть общего сухожильного кольца = Medial part of common tendinous ring

Передняя медиальная половина глазного яблока = Anterior half of eyeball medially

Нижняя ветвь глазодвигательного нерва = Oculomotor nerve [III]- inferior branch

Приведение глазного яблока = Adduction of eyeball

5

Латеральная прямая мышца = Lateral rectus

Lateral part of common tendinous ring

Anterior half of eyeball laterally

Abducent nerve [VI]

Abduction of eyeball

6

Верхняя косая мышца = Superior oblique

Body of sphenoid, superior and medial to optic canal

Outer posterior quadrant of eyeball

Trochlear nerve [IV]

Depression, abduction, medial rotation of eyeball

7

Нижняя косая мышца = Inferior oblique

Medial floor of orbit posterior to rim; maxilla lateral to nasolacrimal groove

Outer posterior quadrant of eyeball

Oculomotor nerve [III]- inferior branch

Elevation, abduction, lateral rotation of eyeball


Схема. Места прикрепления мышц глазного яблока. Вид спереди = Origins of muscles of the eyeball, coronal view.
Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian  
Модификация: Gray H., (1821–1865), Drake R., Vogl W., Mitchell A., Eds. Gray's Anatomy for Students. Churchill Livingstone, 2007, 1150 p.
см.: Анатомия человека: Литература. Иллюстрации.

Примечание:
Four rectus muscles occupy medial, lateral, inferior, and superior positions as they pass from their origins posteriorly to their points of attachment on the anterior half of the eyeball. They originate as a group from a common tendinous ring at the apex of the orbit and form a cone of muscles as they pass forward to their attachment on the eyeball.



Superior and inferior rectus muscles
The superior and inferior rectus muscles have complicated actions because the apex of the orbit, where the muscles originate, is medial to the central axis of the eyeball when looking directly forward:
    the superior rectus originates from the superior part of the common tendinous ring above the optic canal;
    the inferior rectus originates from the inferior part of the common tendinous ring below the optic canal.
As these muscles pass forward in the orbit to attach to the anterior half of the eyeball they are also directed laterally. Because of these orientations:
    contraction of the superior rectus elevates, adducts, and internally rotates the eyeball;
    contraction of the inferior rectus depresses, adducts, and externally rotates the eyeball.


Схема. Действия наружных мышц глазного яблока на его положение. A. Действие отдельных мышц (на анатомическое положение). B. Движения глаза при клиническом тестировании функций отдельных мышц = Actions of muscles of the eyeball. A. Action of individual muscles (anatomical action). B. Movement of eye when testing specific muscle (clinical testing).
Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian
Модификация: Gray H., (1821–1865), Drake R., Vogl W., Mitchell A., Eds. Gray's Anatomy for Students. Churchill Livingstone, 2007, 1150 p.
см.: Анатомия человека: Литература. Иллюстрации

Примечание:

The superior branch of the oculomotor nerve [III] innervates the superior rectus, and the inferior branch of the oculomotor nerve [III] innervates the inferior rectus.
To isolate the function of and to test the superior and inferior rectus muscles, a patient is asked to track a physician's finger laterally and then either upwards or downwards. The first movement brings the axis of the eyeball into alignment with the long axis of the superior and inferior rectus muscles. Moving the finger upwards tests the superior rectus muscle and moving it downwards tests the inferior rectus muscle.
Medial and lateral rectus muscles
The orientation and actions of the medial and lateral rectus muscles are more straightforward than those of the superior and inferior rectus muscles.
The medial rectus originates from the medial part of the common tendinous ring medial to and below the optic canal, whereas the lateral rectus originates from the lateral part of the common tendinous ring as the common tendinous ring bridges the superior orbital fissure.
The medial and lateral rectus muscles pass forward and attach to the anterior half of the eyeball. Contraction of each medial rectus adducts the eyeball, whereas contraction of each lateral rectus abducts the eyeball.
The inferior branch of the oculomotor nerve [III] innervates the medial rectus, and the abducent nerve [VI] innervates the lateral rectus.
To isolate the function of and test the medial and lateral rectus muscles, a patient is asked to track a physician's finger medially and laterally, respectively, in the horizontal plane.
Oblique muscles
The oblique muscles are in the superior and inferior parts of the orbit, do not originate from the common tendinous ring, are angular in their approaches to the eyeball, and, unlike the rectus muscles, attach to the posterior half of the eyeball.
Superior oblique
The superior oblique arises from the body of the sphenoid, superior and medial to the optic canal and medial to the origin of the levator palpebrae superioris. It passes forward, along the medial border of the roof of the orbit, until it reaches a fibrocartilaginous pulley (the trochlea), which is attached to the trochlear fovea of the frontal bone.
The tendon of superior oblique passes through the trochlea and turns laterally to cross the eyeball in a posterolateral direction. It continues deep to the superior rectus muscle and inserts into the outer posterior quadrant of the eyeball.
Contraction of the superior oblique therefore directs the pupil down and out.
The trochlear nerve [IV] innervates the superior oblique along its superior surface.
To isolate the function of and to test the superior oblique muscle, a patient is asked to track a physician's finger medially to bring the axis of the tendon of the muscle into alignment with the axis of the eyeball, and then to look down, which tests the muscle.
Inferior oblique
The inferior oblique is the only extrinsic muscle that does not take origin from the posterior part of the orbit. It arises from the medial side of the floor of the orbit, just posterior to the orbital rim, and is attached to the orbital surface of the maxilla just lateral to the nasolacrimal groove.
The inferior oblique crosses the floor of the orbit in a posterolateral direction between the inferior rectus and the floor of the orbit, before inserting into the outer posterior quadrant just under the lateral rectus.
Contraction of the inferior oblique directs the pupil up and out.
The inferior branch of the oculomotor nerve innervates the inferior oblique.
To isolate the function of and to test the inferior oblique muscle, a patient is asked to track a physician's finger medially to bring the axis of the eyeball into alignment with the axis of the muscle and then to look up, which tests the muscle).
Extrinsic muscles and eyeball movements
Six of the seven extrinsic muscles of the orbit are directly involved in movements of the eyeball.
For each of the rectus muscles, the medial, lateral, inferior, and superior, and the superior and inferior obliques, a specific action or group of actions can be described (Table 8.8). However, these muscles do not act in isolation. They work as teams of muscles in the coordinated movement of the eyeball to position the pupil as needed.
For example, although the lateral rectus is the muscle primarily responsible for moving the eyeball laterally, it is assisted in this action by the superior and inferior oblique muscles.

Схема. Артерии (A) и вены (B) глазницы и глазного яблока = A. Arterial supply to the orbit and eyeball. B. Venous drainage of the orbit and eyeball.
Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian
Модификация: Gray H., (1821–1865), Drake R., Vogl W., Mitchell A., Eds. Gray's Anatomy for Students. Churchill Livingstone, 2007, 1150 p.
см.: Анатомия человека: Литература. Иллюстрации

Примечание:

Arteries
The arterial supply to the structures in the orbit, including the eyeball, is by the ophthalmic artery. This vessel is a branch of the internal carotid artery, given off immediately after the internal carotid artery leaves the cavernous sinus. The ophthalmic artery passes into the orbit through the optic canal with the optic nerve.
In the orbit the ophthalmic artery initially lies inferior and lateral to the optic nerve. As it passes forward in the orbit it crosses superior to the optic nerve and proceeds anteriorly on the medial side of the orbit.
In the orbit the ophthalmic artery gives off numerous branches as follows:
    the lacrimal artery, which arises from the ophthalmic artery on the lateral side of the optic nerve, and passes anteriorly on the lateral side of the orbit, supplying the lacrimal gland, muscles, the anterior ciliary branch to the eyeball, and the lateral sides of the eyelid;
    the central retinal artery, which enters the optic nerve, proceeds down the center of the nerve to the retina, and is clearly seen when viewing the retina with an ophthalmoscope-occlusion of this vessel or of the parent artery leads to blindness;
    the long and short posterior ciliary arteries, which are branches that enter the eyeball posteriorly, piercing the sclera, and supplying structures inside the eyeball;
    the muscular arteries, which are branches supplying the intrinsic muscles of the eyeball;
    the supra-orbital artery, which usually arises from the ophthalmic artery immediately after it has crossed the optic nerve, proceeds anteriorly, and exits the orbit through the supra-orbital foramen with the supra-orbital nerve-it supplies the forehead and scalp as it passes across these areas to the vertex of the skull;
    the posterior ethmoidal artery, which exits the orbit through the posterior ethmoidal foramen to supply the ethmoidal air cells and nasal cavity;
    the anterior ethmoidal artery, which exits the orbit through the anterior ethmoidal foramen, enters the cranial cavity giving off the anterior meningeal branch, and continues into the nasal cavity supplying the septum and lateral wall, and ending as the dorsal nasal artery;
    the medial palpebral arteries, which are small branches supplying the medial area of the upper and lower eyelids;
    the dorsal nasal artery, which is one of the two terminal branches of the ophthalmic artery, leaves the orbit to supply the upper surface of the nose;
    the supratrochlear artery, which is the other terminal branch of the ophthalmic artery and leaves the orbit with the supratrochlear nerve, supplying the forehead as it passes across it in a superior direction.

Veins
There are two venous channels in the orbit, the superior and inferior ophthalmic veins.
The superior ophthalmic vein begins in the anterior area of the orbit as connecting veins from the supra-orbital vein and the angular vein join together. It passes across the superior part of the orbit, receiving tributaries from the companion veins to the branches of the ophthalmic artery and veins draining the posterior part of the eyeball. Posteriorly, it leaves the orbit through the superior orbital fissure and enters the cavernous sinus.
The inferior ophthalmic vein is smaller than the superior ophthalmic vein, begins anteriorly, and passes across the inferior part of the orbit. It receives various tributaries from muscles and the posterior part of the eyeball as it crosses the orbit.
The inferior ophthalmic vein leaves the orbit posteriorly by:
    joining with the superior ophthalmic vein;
    passing through the superior orbital fissure on its own to join the cavernous sinus; or
    passing through the inferior orbital fissure to join with the pterygoid plexus of veins in the infratemporal fossa.


Схема. Иннервация глазницы и глазного яблока = Innervation of the orbit and eyeball.
Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian  
Модификация: Gray H., (1821–1865), Drake R., Vogl W., Mitchell A., Eds. Gray's Anatomy for Students. Churchill Livingstone, 2007, 1150 p.
см.: Анатомия человека: Литература. Иллюстрации.

Примечание:
Innervation
Numerous nerves pass into the orbit and innervate structures within its bony walls. They include the optic nerve [II], the oculomotor nerve [III], the trochlear nerve [IV], the abducent nerve [VI], and autonomic nerves. Other nerves such as the ophthalmic nerve [V1] innervate orbital structures and then travel out of the orbit to innervate other regions.


Optic nerve
The optic nerve [II] is not a true cranial nerve, but rather an extension of the brain carrying afferent fibers from the retina of the eyeball to the visual centers of the brain. It is surrounded by the cranial meninges, including the subarachnoid space, which extend as far forward as the eyeball.
Any increase in intracranial pressure therefore results in increased pressure in the subarachnoid space surrounding the optic nerve. This may impede venous return along the retinal veins, causing edema of the optic disc (papilledema) which can be seen when the retina is examined using an ophthalmoscope.
The optic nerve leaves the orbit through the optic canal. It is accompanied in the optic canal by the ophthalmic artery.
Oculomotor nerve
The oculomotor nerve [III] leaves the anterior surface of the brainstem between the midbrain and the pons. It passes forward in the lateral wall of the cavernous sinus.
Just before entering the orbit the oculomotor nerve [III] divides into superior and inferior branches. These branches enter the orbit through the superior orbital fissure, lying within the common tendinous ring.
Inside the orbit the small superior branch passes upward on the lateral side of the optic nerve to innervate the superior rectus and levator palpebrae superioris muscles.
The large inferior branch divides into three branches:
    one passing below the optic nerve as it passes to the medial side of the orbit to innervate the medial rectus muscle;
    a second descending to innervate the inferior rectus muscle;
    the third descends as it runs forward along the floor of the orbit to innervate the inferior oblique muscle.
As the third branch descends, it gives off the branch to the ciliary ganglion. This is the parasympathetic root to the ciliary ganglion and carries preganglionic parasympathetic fibers that will synapse in the ciliary ganglion with postganglionic parasympathetic fibers. The postganglionic fibers are distributed to the eyeball through short ciliary nerves and innervate the sphincter pupillae and ciliary muscles.
Trochlear nerve
The trochlear nerve [IV] arises from the posterior surface of the midbrain, and passes around the midbrain to enter the edge of the tentorium cerebelli. It continues on an intradural path arriving in and passing through the lateral wall of the cavernous sinus just below the oculomotor nerve [III].
Just before entering the orbit, the trochlear nerve ascends, passing across the oculomotor nerve [III] and enters the orbit through the superior orbital fissure above the common tendinous ring. In the orbit the trochlear nerve [IV] ascends and turns medially, crossing above the levator palpebrae superioris muscle to enter the upper border of the superior oblique muscle.
Abducent nerve
The abducent nerve [VI] arises from the brainstem between the pons and medulla. It enters the dura covering the clivus and continues in a dural canal until it reaches the cavernous sinus.
The abducent nerve enters the cavernous sinus and runs through the sinus lateral to the internal carotid artery. It passes out of the sinus and enters the orbit through the superior orbital fissure within the common tendinous ring. Once in the orbit it passes out laterally to supply the lateral rectus muscle.
Postganglionic sympathetic fibers
Preganglionic sympathetic fibers arise from the upper segments of the thoracic spinal cord, mainly T1. They enter the sympathetic chain through white rami communicantes, and ascend to the superior cervical ganglion where they synapse with postganglionic sympathetic fibers.
The postganglionic fibers are distributed along the internal carotid artery and its branches.
The postganglionic sympathetic fibers destined for the orbit travel with the ophthalmic artery. Once in the orbit the fibers are distributed to the eyeball either by:
    passing through the ciliary ganglion, without synapsing, and joining the short ciliary nerves, which pass from the ganglion to the eyeball; or
    passing through long ciliary nerves to reach the eyeball.
In the eyeball postganglionic sympathetic fibers innervate the dilator pupillae muscle.
Ophthalmic nerve [V1]
The ophthalmic nerve [V1] is the smallest and most superior of the three divisions of the trigeminal nerve. This purely sensory nerve receives input from structures in the orbit and from additional branches on the face and scalp.
Leaving the trigeminal ganglion, the ophthalmic nerve [V1] passes forward in the lateral wall of the cavernous sinus inferior to the trochlear [IV] and oculomotor [III] nerves. Just before it enters the orbit it divides into three branches-the nasociliary, lacrimal, and frontal nerves. These branches enter the orbit through the superior orbital fissure with the frontal and lacrimal nerves outside the common tendinous ring, and the nasociliary nerve within the common tendinous ring.
Lacrimal nerve
The lacrimal nerve is the smallest of the three branches of the ophthalmic nerve [V1]. Once in the orbit it passes forward along the upper border of the lateral rectus muscle. It receives a branch from the zygomaticotemporal nerve, which carries parasympathetic and sympathetic postganglionic fibers for distribution to the lacrimal gland.
Reaching the anterolateral aspect of the orbit, the lacrimal nerve supplies the lacrimal gland, conjunctiva, and lateral part of the upper eyelid.
Frontal nerve
The frontal nerve is the largest branch of the ophthalmic nerve [V1] and receives sensory input from areas outside the orbit. Exiting the superior orbital fissure, this branch passes forward between the levator palpebrae superioris and the periorbita on the roof of the orbit. About midway across the orbit it divides into its two terminal branches-the supra-orbital and supratrochlear nerves:
    the supratrochlear nerve continues forward in an anteromedial direction, passing above the trochlea, exits the orbit medial to the supra-orbital foramen, and supplies the conjunctiva and skin of the upper eyelid and the skin on the lower medial part of the forehead;
    the supra-orbital nerve is the larger of the two branches, continues forward, passing between the levator palpebrae superioris muscle and the periorbita covering the roof of the orbit, exits the orbit through the supra-orbital notch and ascends across the forehead and scalp, supplying the upper eyelid and conjunctiva, the forehead, and as far posteriorly as the middle of the scalp.
Nasociliary nerve
The nasociliary nerve is intermediate in size between the frontal and lacrimal nerves and is usually the first branch from the ophthalmic nerve. It is most deeply placed in the orbit, entering the area within the common tendinous ring between the superior and inferior branches of the oculomotor nerve [III].
Once in the orbit, the nasociliary nerve crosses the superior surface of the optic nerve as it passes in a medial direction below the superior rectus muscle. Its first branch, the communicating branch with the ciliary ganglion (sensory root to the ciliary ganglion), is given off early in its path through the orbit.
The nasociliary nerve continues forward along the medial wall of the orbit, between the superior oblique and the medial rectus muscles, giving off several branches. These include:
    the long ciliary nerves, which are sensory to the eyeball but may also contain sympathetic fibers for pupillary dilation;
    the posterior ethmoidal nerve, which exits the orbit through the posterior ethmoidal foramen to supply posterior ethmoidal air cells and the sphenoidal sinus;
    the infratrochlear nerve, which distributes to the medial part of the upper and lower eyelids, the lacrimal sac, and skin of the upper half of the nose;
    the anterior ethmoidal nerve, which exits the orbit through the anterior ethmoidal foramen to supply the anterior cranial fossa, nasal cavity, and skin of the lower half of the nose.
Ciliary ganglion
The ciliary ganglion is a parasympathetic ganglion of the occulomotor nerve [III]. It is associated with the nasociliary branch of the ophthalmic nerve [V1] and is the site where preganglionic and postganglionic parasympathetic neurons synapse as fibers from this part of the autonomic division of the PNS make their way to the eyeball. The ciliary ganglion is also traversed by postganglionic sympathetic fibers and sensory fibers as they travel to the eyeball.
The ciliary ganglion is a very small ganglion, in the posterior part of the orbit immediately lateral to the optic nerve and between the optic nerve and the lateral rectus muscle. It is usually described as receiving at least two, and possibly three, branches or roots from other nerves in the orbit.
Parasympathetic root
As the inferior branch of the oculomotor nerve [III] passes the area of the ciliary ganglion, it sends a branch to the ganglion (the parasympathetic root). The parasympathetic branch carries preganglionic parasympathetic fibers, which enter the ganglion and synapse with postganglionic parasympathetic fibers within the ganglion.
The postganglionic parasympathetic fibers leave the ganglion through short ciliary nerves, which enter the posterior aspect of the eyeball around the optic nerve.
In the eyeball the parasympathetic fibers innervate:
the sphincter pupillae muscle, responsible for pupillary constriction;
the ciliary muscle, responsible for accommodation of the lens of the eye for near vision.
Sensory root
A second branch (the sensory root), passes from the nasociliary nerve to the ganglion. This branch enters the posterosuperior aspect of the ganglion, and carries sensory fibers, which pass through the ganglion and continue along the short ciliary nerves to the eyeball. These fibers are responsible for sensory innervation to all parts of the eyeball.
Sympathetic root
The third branch to the ciliary ganglion is the most variable. This branch, when present, is the sympathetic root and contains postganglionic sympathetic fibers from the superior cervical ganglion. These fibers travel up the internal carotid artery, leave the plexus surrounding the artery in the cavernous sinus, and enter the orbit through the common tendinous ring. In the orbit they enter the posterior aspect of the ciliary ganglion, cross the ganglion, and continue along the short ciliary nerves to the eyeball.
Sympathetic fibers to the eyeball may not enter the ganglion as a separate branch. The postganglionic sympathetic fibers may leave the plexus associated with the internal carotid artery in the cavernous sinus, join the ophthalmic nerve [V1] and distribute to the ciliary ganglion through the sensory root from the nasociliary nerve.
Whatever their path, postganglionic sympathetic fibers reach the eyeball and innervate the dilator pupillae muscle.



Схема. Глазодвигательный нерв и его ветви = Oculomotor nerve [III] and its divisions.
Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian  
Модификация: Gray H., (1821–1865), Drake R., Vogl W., Mitchell A., Eds. Gray's Anatomy for Students. Churchill Livingstone, 2007, 1150 p.
см.: Анатомия человека: Литература. Иллюстрации.

Примечание:
The oculomotor nerve [III] leaves the anterior surface of the brainstem between the midbrain and the pons. It passes forward in the lateral wall of the cavernous sinus.


Just before entering the orbit the oculomotor nerve [III] divides into superior and inferior branches. These branches enter the orbit through the superior orbital fissure, lying within the common tendinous ring.
Inside the orbit the small superior branch passes upward on the lateral side of the optic nerve to innervate the superior rectus and levator palpebrae superioris muscles.
The large inferior branch divides into three branches:
    one passing below the optic nerve as it passes to the medial side of the orbit to innervate the medial rectus muscle;
    a second descending to innervate the inferior rectus muscle;
    the third descends as it runs forward along the floor of the orbit to innervate the inferior oblique muscle.
As the third branch descends, it gives off the branch to the ciliary ganglion. This is the parasympathetic root to the ciliary ganglion and carries preganglionic parasympathetic fibers that will synapse in the ciliary ganglion with postganglionic parasympathetic fibers. The postganglionic fibers are distributed to the eyeball through short ciliary nerves and innervate the sphincter pupillae and ciliary muscles.



Схема. Блоковый нерв в глазнице= Trochlear nerve [IV] in the orbit.
Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian  
Модификация: Gray H., (1821–1865), Drake R., Vogl W., Mitchell A., Eds. Gray's Anatomy for Students. Churchill Livingstone, 2007, 1150 p.
см.: Анатомия человека: Литература. Иллюстрации.

Примечание:
The trochlear nerve [IV] arises from the posterior surface of the midbrain, and passes around the midbrain to enter the edge of the tentorium cerebelli. It continues on an intradural path arriving in and passing through the lateral wall of the cavernous sinus just below the oculomotor nerve [III].


Just before entering the orbit, the trochlear nerve ascends, passing across the oculomotor nerve [III] and enters the orbit through the superior orbital fissure above the common tendinous ring (Fig. 8.94). In the orbit the trochlear nerve [IV] ascends and turns medially, crossing above the levator palpebrae superioris muscle to enter the upper border of the superior oblique muscle.



Схема. Глазной нерв (ветвь тройничного нерва) и его ветви = Ophthalmic nerve [V1] and its divisions.
Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian  
Модификация: Gray H., (1821–1865), Drake R., Vogl W., Mitchell A., Eds. Gray's Anatomy for Students. Churchill Livingstone, 2007, 1150 p.
см.: Анатомия человека: Литература. Иллюстрации.

Примечание:
The ophthalmic nerve [V1] is the smallest and most superior of the three divisions of the trigeminal nerve. This purely sensory nerve receives input from structures in the orbit and from additional branches on the face and scalp.
Leaving the trigeminal ganglion, the ophthalmic nerve [V1] passes forward in the lateral wall of the cavernous sinus inferior to the trochlear [IV] and oculomotor [III] nerves.


Just before entering the orbit, the trochlear nerve ascends, passing across the oculomotor nerve [III] and enters the orbit through the superior orbital fissure above the common tendinous ring. In the orbit the trochlear nerve [IV] ascends and turns medially, crossing above the levator palpebrae superioris muscle to enter the upper border of the superior oblique muscle.



Схема. Взаимоотношения глазного нерва (ветвь тройничного нерва) и его ветвей с мышцами глазного яблока = Relationship of the ophthalmic nerve [V1] and its divisions to the muscles of the eyeball.
Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian  
Модификация: Gray H., (1821–1865), Drake R., Vogl W., Mitchell A., Eds. Gray's Anatomy for Students. Churchill Livingstone, 2007, 1150 p.
см.: Анатомия человека: Литература. Иллюстрации.

Примечание:
The ophthalmic nerve [V1] is the smallest and most superior of the three divisions of the trigeminal nerve. This purely sensory nerve receives input from structures in the orbit and from additional branches on the face and scalp.
Leaving the trigeminal ganglion, the ophthalmic nerve [V1] passes forward in the lateral wall of the cavernous sinus inferior to the trochlear [IV] and oculomotor [III] nerves. Just before it enters the orbit it divides into three branches-the nasociliary, lacrimal, and frontal nerves. These branches enter the orbit through the superior orbital fissure with the frontal and lacrimal nerves outside the common tendinous ring, and the nasociliary nerve within the common tendinous ring.


Just before entering the orbit, the trochlear nerve ascends, passing across the oculomotor nerve [III] and enters the orbit through the superior orbital fissure above the common tendinous ring. In the orbit the trochlear nerve [IV] ascends and turns medially, crossing above the levator palpebrae superioris muscle to enter the upper border of the superior oblique muscle.



Схема. Положение носоресничного нерва в глазнице = Course of the nasociliary nerve [V1] in the eyeball.
Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian  
Модификация: Gray H., (1821–1865), Drake R., Vogl W., Mitchell A., Eds. Gray's Anatomy for Students. Churchill Livingstone, 2007, 1150 p.
см.: Анатомия человека: Литература. Иллюстрации.

Примечание:
The nasociliary nerve is intermediate in size between the frontal and lacrimal nerves and is usually the first branch from the ophthalmic nerve. It is most deeply placed in the orbit, entering the area within the common tendinous ring between the superior and inferior branches of the oculomotor nerve [III].
Once in the orbit, the nasociliary nerve crosses the superior surface of the optic nerve as it passes in a medial direction below the superior rectus muscle. Its first branch, the communicating branch with the ciliary ganglion (sensory root to the ciliary ganglion), is given off early in its path through the orbit.


The nasociliary nerve continues forward along the medial wall of the orbit, between the superior oblique and the medial rectus muscles, giving off several branches. These include:
    the long ciliary nerves, which are sensory to the eyeball but may also contain sympathetic fibers for pupillary dilation;
    the posterior ethmoidal nerve, which exits the orbit through the posterior ethmoidal foramen to supply posterior ethmoidal air cells and the sphenoidal sinus;
    the infratrochlear nerve, which distributes to the medial part of the upper and lower eyelids, the lacrimal sac, and skin of the upper half of the nose;
    the anterior ethmoidal nerve, which exits the orbit through the anterior ethmoidal foramen to supply the anterior cranial fossa, nasal cavity, and skin of the lower half of the nose.



Схема. Ресничный узел = Ciliary ganglion.
Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian  
Модификация: Gray H., (1821–1865), Drake R., Vogl W., Mitchell A., Eds. Gray's Anatomy for Students. Churchill Livingstone, 2007, 1150 p.
см.: Анатомия человека: Литература. Иллюстрации.

Примечание:
The ciliary ganglion is a parasympathetic ganglion of the occulomotor nerve [III]. It is associated with the nasociliary branch of the ophthalmic nerve [V1].


It is the site where preganglionic and postganglionic parasympathetic neurons synapse as fibers from this part of the autonomic division of the PNS make their way to the eyeball. The ciliary ganglion is also traversed by postganglionic sympathetic fibers and sensory fibers as they travel to the eyeball.
The ciliary ganglion is a very small ganglion, in the posterior part of the orbit immediately lateral to the optic nerve and between the optic nerve and the lateral rectus muscle. It is usually described as receiving at least two, and possibly three, branches or roots from other nerves in the orbit.
Parasympathetic root
As the inferior branch of the oculomotor nerve [III] passes the area of the ciliary ganglion, it sends a branch to the ganglion (the parasympathetic root). The parasympathetic branch carries preganglionic parasympathetic fibers, which enter the ganglion and synapse with postganglionic parasympathetic fibers within the ganglion.
The postganglionic parasympathetic fibers leave the ganglion through short ciliary nerves, which enter the posterior aspect of the eyeball around the optic nerve.
In the eyeball the parasympathetic fibers innervate:
    the sphincter pupillae muscle, responsible for pupillary constriction;
    the ciliary muscle, responsible for accommodation of the lens of the eye for near vision.
Sensory root
A second branch (the sensory root), passes from the nasociliary nerve to the ganglion. This branch enters the posterosuperior aspect of the ganglion, and carries sensory fibers, which pass through the ganglion and continue along the short ciliary nerves to the eyeball. These fibers are responsible for sensory innervation to all parts of the eyeball.
Sympathetic root
The third branch to the ciliary ganglion is the most variable. This branch, when present, is the sympathetic root and contains postganglionic sympathetic fibers from the superior cervical ganglion. These fibers travel up the internal carotid artery, leave the plexus surrounding the artery in the cavernous sinus, and enter the orbit through the common tendinous ring. In the orbit they enter the posterior aspect of the ciliary ganglion, cross the ganglion, and continue along the short ciliary nerves to the eyeball.
Sympathetic fibers to the eyeball may not enter the ganglion as a separate branch. The postganglionic sympathetic fibers may leave the plexus associated with the internal carotid artery in the cavernous sinus, join the ophthalmic nerve [V1] and distribute to the ciliary ganglion through the sensory root from the nasociliary nerve.
Whatever their path, postganglionic sympathetic fibers reach the eyeball and innervate the dilator pupillae muscle.


Схема. Глазное яблоко = Eyeball.
Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian
Модификация: Gray H., (1821–1865), Drake R., Vogl W., Mitchell A., Eds. Gray's Anatomy for Students. Churchill Livingstone, 2007, 1150 p.
см.: Анатомия человека: Литература. Иллюстрации

Примечание:

The globe-shaped eyeball occupies the anterior part of the orbit. Its rounded shape is disrupted anteriorly, where it bulges outward. This outward projection represents about one-sixth of the total area of the eyeball and is the transparent cornea.


     Литература.  Иллюстрации.     References.  Illustrations
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  1. Basbaum A.I., Shepherd G.M., Kaneko A., Westheimer J., Eds. The Senses: A Comprehensive Reference = Чувства. Справочник. 6-vol set, Academic Press, 2007, 4640 p. Иллюстрированное учебное пособие.  Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian.
    Доступ к данному источнику = Access to the reference.
    URL: http://www.tryphonov.ru/tryphonov/serv_r.htm#0          quotation
  2. Burnstock G., Sillito A.M., Eds., Nervous Control of the Eye = Нейрогенные механизмы управления в зрительной системе. Informa Health Care, 2000, 320 p. Иллюстрированное учебное пособие. Анатомия, гистология, физиология.  Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian.
    Доступ к данному источнику = Access to the reference.
    URL: http://www.tryphonov.ru/tryphonov/serv_r.htm#0          quotation
  3. Chalupa L.M., and Werner J.S., Eds. he Visual Neurosciences = Нейрофизиология зрения. Двухтомник. 2-vol set, The MIT Press, 2003, 1808 p. Сборник обзоров.
    Доступ к данному источнику = Access to the reference.
    URL: http://www.tryphonov.ru/tryphonov/serv_r.htm#0          quotation
  4. Dartt D.A., Ed. Encyclopedia of the Eye = Глаз. Энциклопедия. Четырёхтомник, 4 vol. set, Academic Press, 2010, 2344 p.
    Иллюстрированное учебное пособие.
    Доступ к данному источнику = Access to the reference.
    URL: http://www.tryphonov.ru/tryphonov/serv_r.htm#0          quotation
  5. De Valois K.K. Seeing (Handbook of Perception and Cognition) = Зрение. Восприятие и познание. Academic Press, 2000, 392 p. Иллюстрированное учебное пособие.  Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian.
    Доступ к данному источнику = Access to the reference.
    URL: http://www.tryphonov.ru/tryphonov/serv_r.htm#0          quotation
  6. Faller A., Schuenke M., Eds. The Human Body = Тело человека. Thieme, 2004, 710 p.
    Основные принципы анатомии и физиологии тела человека. Прекрасно иллюстрированный учебник для средних учебных заведений.
    Доступ к данному источнику = Access to the reference. Атласы и учебники издательства Thieme.
    URL: http://www.tryphonov.ru/tryphonov/serv_r.htm#0.          quotation
  7. Friedman N.J., Kaiser P.K., Pineda R., Eds. The Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary Illustrated Manual of Ophthalmology = Офтальмология, 3rd ed., Elsevier, 2011, ~86 MB.
    Иллюстрированное учебное пособие.  Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian.
    Доступ к данному источнику = Access to the reference.
    URL: http://www.tryphonov.ru/tryphonov/serv_r.htm#0          quotation
  8. Gray H., (1821–1865), Drake R., Vogl W., Mitchell A., Eds. Gray's Anatomy for Students = Г. Грей: Анатомия для студентов. Churchill Livingstone, 2007, 1150 p.
    Прекрасно иллюстрированное классическое учебное пособие и руководство, обновленное и дополненное коллективом современных авторов. В формате .chm.  Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian.
    Доступ к данному источнику = Access to the reference.
    URL: http://www.tryphonov.ru/tryphonov/serv_r.htm#0          quotation
  9. Gray H., (1821–1865), Standring S., Ed. Gray's Anatomy: The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice = Г. Грей: Анатомические основы клинической практики. 39th ed., Churchill Livingstone, 2008, 1600 p.
    Прекрасно иллюстрированное классическое учебное пособие и руководство, обновленное и дополненное коллективом современных авторов. В формате .chm.  Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian.
    Доступ к данному источнику = Access to the reference.
    URL: http://www.tryphonov.ru/tryphonov/serv_r.htm#0          quotation
  10. Gray H., (1821–1865), Bannister L.H., Berry M.M., and Williams P.L., Eds. Gray's Anatomy: The Anatomical Basis of Medicine & Surgery = Г. Грей: Анатомические основы медицины и хирургии. 38th ed., Churchill Livingstone, 1995, 600 p.
    Прекрасно иллюстрированное классическое учебное пособие и руководство, обновленное и дополненное коллективом современных авторов. В формате .pdf.  Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian.
    Доступ к данному источнику = Access to the reference.
    URL: http://www.tryphonov.ru/tryphonov/serv_r.htm#0          quotation
  11. Grierson I. Eye Book: Eyes and Eye Problems Explained = Глаз. Норма и патология. Liverpool University Press, 2000, 220 p. Иллюстрированное учебное пособие.
    Доступ к данному источнику = Access to the reference.
    URL: http://www.tryphonov.ru/tryphonov/serv_r.htm#0          quotation
  12. Grossman S., Ed. Porth's Pathophysiology = Патофизиология, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2013, 1690 p.
    Учебное пособие.  Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian.
    Доступ к данному источнику = Access to the reference.
    URL: http://www.tryphonov.ru/tryphonov/serv_r.htm#0          quotation
  13. Herranz R.M., Herran R.M.C., Eds. Ocular surface: anatomy and physiology, disorders, and therapeutic care = Поверхность глазного яблока. Анатомия, физиология, нарушения, лечение, Springer, 2005, 281 p.
    Учебное пособие.  Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian.
    Доступ к данному источнику = Access to the reference.
    URL: http://www.tryphonov.ru/tryphonov/serv_r.htm#0          quotation
  14.  Physiology of the Eye (CD-ROM) = Физиология глаза (диск), iKnow, 2005.
    Интерактивный глаз.
    Доступ к данному источнику = Access to the reference.
    URL: http://www.tryphonov.ru/tryphonov/serv_r.htm#0          quotation
  15. Schlote T., Rohrbach J., Grueb M., Mielke J. Pocket atlas of ophthalmology = Офтальмология. Карманный атлас. Thieme, 2006, 214 p.
    Учебное пособие.  Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian.
    Доступ к данному источнику = Access to the reference.
    URL: http://www.tryphonov.ru/tryphonov/serv_r.htm#0          quotation
  16. Valberg A. Light. Vision. Color = Свет. Зрение. Цвет. Wiley, 2005, 474 p. Иллюстрированное учебное пособие.  Перевести на русский язык = Translate into Russian.
    Доступ к данному источнику = Access to the reference.
    URL: http://www.tryphonov.ru/tryphonov/serv_r.htm#0          quotation
  17. Ward J.P.T., Linden R.W.A., Eds. Physiology at a Glance = Основы физиологии, 3rd ed., Wiley, 2013, 168 p.
    Иллюстрированное учебное пособие..
    Доступ к данному источнику = Access to the reference.
    URL: http://www.tryphonov.ru/tryphonov/serv_r.htm#0          quotation

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В отдельном окне: 

     
«Я    У Ч Е Н Ы Й    И Л И . . .    Н Е Д О У Ч К А ?»
    Т Е С Т    В А Ш Е Г О    И Н Т Е Л Л Е К Т А

Предпосылка:
Эффективность развития любой отрасли знаний определяется степенью соответствия методологии познания - познаваемой сущности.
Реальность:
Живые структуры от биохимического и субклеточного уровня, до целого организма являются вероятностными структурами. Функции вероятностных структур являются вероятностными функциями.
Необходимое условие:
Эффективное исследование вероятностных структур и функций должно основываться на вероятностной методологии (Трифонов Е.В., 1978,..., ..., 2015, …).
Критерий: Степень развития морфологии, физиологии, психологии человека и медицины, объём индивидуальных и социальных знаний в этих областях определяется степенью использования вероятностной методологии.
Актуальные знания: В соответствии с предпосылкой, реальностью, необходимым условием и критерием... ...
о ц е н и т е   с а м о с т о я т е л ь н о:
—  с т е п е н ь  р а з в и т и я   с о в р е м е н н о й   н а у к и,
—  о б ъ е м   В а ш и х   з н а н и й   и
—  В а ш   и н т е л л е к т !


Любые реальности, как физические, так и психические, являются по своей сущности вероятностными.  Формулирование этого фундаментального положения – одно из главных достижений науки 20-го века.  Инструментом эффективного познания вероятностных сущностей и явлений служит вероятностная методология (Трифонов Е.В., 1978,..., ..., 2014, …).  Использование вероятностной методологии позволило открыть и сформулировать важнейший для психофизиологии принцип: генеральной стратегией управления всеми психофизическими структурами и функциями является прогнозирование (Трифонов Е.В., 1978,..., ..., 2012, …).  Непризнание этих фактов по незнанию – заблуждение и признак научной некомпетентности.  Сознательное отвержение или замалчивание этих фактов – признак недобросовестности и откровенная ложь.


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